A caldera is a round collapse basin or depression formed by magma being ejected from an underground reservoir. This removal of magma causes the ground above to weaken, therefore resulting in collapse. A caldera is similar to, but different from a crater, which is caused by the displacement of rocks during an eruption. Some calderas are as wide as 25 kilometers across and can explode more than 50 cubic kilometers of magma.
Resurgent bulges form in calderas as a result of magma being forced into the magma chamber below the surface. These can form small mountains which may or may not be eruptive.
Mallard Lake dome of Yellowstone is an example of a resurgent dome.

The Yellowstone caldera is an old eruption site of a large resurgent volcano, which has created a beautiful valley in the Wyoming area of the United States, covered with breath taking geysers that are a result of the volcanic eruption and the heat underneath. It is the site of one of the world’s largest hydrothermal systems, including the earth’s largest concentration of geysers- over half of the total, the most famous of which is named Old Faithful. The caldera is carefully monitored by tilt meters and other remote sensors because since the time of its previous eruption, the magma has been pushing crust back up and refilling. One day it will release its pressure, or erupt, again. Even though it is difficult to predict eruptions in the short term, there are possible precursors or warnings such as small earthquakes known as harmonic tremors.

The Yellowstone area developed through three different eruptions over a span of two million years. Some of the world’s largest eruptions are included within the Yellowstone eruptions. There was an eruption forming the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff 2.1 million years ago which created the 75km long Island Park caldera. The second was the eruption 1.3 million years ago that formed the 16km wide Henry’s Fork caldera. This is located in the western edge of the first caldera. The most recent eruption, 640,000 years ago created the Lava Creek Tuff, and formed the present caldera with a size of 45 x 85km. The actual caldera is mostly in Wyoming, but the park reaches into the states of Idaho and Montana. The Lava Creek Tuff eruption covered such an area that the ash can still be found in places as far away as Iowa, Louisiana, and California.

The United States Geological Survey reports that there is a 93% probability that the caldera will erupt again within the next 150,000 years. The rise and fall of the Yellowstone Plateau, which averages more or less 0.6 inches every year, is used as an indication of changes in magma chamber pressure. At present, the upward movement of the Yellowstone caldera floor – almost 3 inches per year for the past few years – is more than three times greater than ever observed since such measurements began in 1923. From mid-Summer 2004 through mid-Summer 2008, the land surface within the caldera has moved upwards as much as 8 inches in some locations. The number and frequency of minor earthquakes is also monitored, and has shown an upward trend. However, U.S. Geological Survey scientists with the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory "see no evidence that another such cataclysmic eruption will occur at Yellowstone in the foreseeable future. The periods between these events are neither regular nor predictable."

It is suggested that no one in this lifetime will live to see a Yellowstone eruption, but it would be a spectacular event and could quite possibly be one of the largest eruptions in the Earth’s history. Due to the size of the magma chamber, the next eruption could be larger than those found in the geological record. The ash flow would be so large that it would suffocate many people in the covered area. The population in the surrounding area would be severely affected, as the lava flow would destroy everything in its way, including houses and structures as well as the beautiful features of Yellowstone National Park. It would cause a catastrophic loss of human lives as well as inestimable monetary loss. By way of comparison, the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption caused an estimated $1bn in damages (the equivalent of $3bn today), and the Yellowstone volcano is expected to erupt with 10,000 times the force of Mount St. Helens.

A caldera is a round collapse basin or depression formed by magma being ejected from an underground reservoir. This removal of magma causes the ground above to weaken, therefore resulting in collapse. A caldera is similar to, but different from a crater, which is caused by the displacement of rocks during an eruption. Some calderas are as wide as 25 kilometers across and can explode more than 50 cubic kilometers of magma.
Resurgent bulges form in calderas as a result of magma being forced into the magma chamber below the surface. These can form small mountains which may or may not be eruptive.
Mallard Lake dome of Yellowstone is an example of a resurgent dome.

The Yellowstone caldera is an old eruption site of a large resurgent volcano, which has created a beautiful valley in the Wyoming area of the United States, covered with breath taking geysers that are a result of the volcanic eruption and the heat underneath. It is the site of one of the world’s largest hydrothermal systems, including the earth’s largest concentration of geysers- over half of the total, the most famous of which is named Old Faithful. The caldera is carefully monitored by tilt meters and other remote sensors because since the time of its previous eruption, the magma has been pushing crust back up and refilling. One day it will release its pressure, or erupt, again. Even though it is difficult to predict eruptions in the short term, there are possible precursors or warnings such as small earthquakes known as harmonic tremors.

The Yellowstone area developed through three different eruptions over a span of two million years. Some of the world’s largest eruptions are included within the Yellowstone eruptions. There was an eruption forming the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff 2.1 million years ago which created the 75km long Island Park caldera. The second was the eruption 1.3 million years ago that formed the 16km wide Henry’s Fork caldera. This is located in the western edge of the first caldera. The most recent eruption, 640,000 years ago created the Lava Creek Tuff, and formed the present caldera with a size of 45 x 85km. The actual caldera is mostly in Wyoming, but the park reaches into the states of Idaho and Montana. The Lava Creek Tuff eruption covered such an area that the ash can still be found in places as far away as Iowa, Louisiana, and California.

The United States Geological Survey reports that there is a 93% probability that the caldera will erupt again within the next 150,000 years. The rise and fall of the Yellowstone Plateau, which averages more or less 0.6 inches every year, is used as an indication of changes in magma chamber pressure. At present, the upward movement of the Yellowstone caldera floor – almost 3 inches per year for the past few years – is more than three times greater than ever observed since such measurements began in 1923. From mid-Summer 2004 through mid-Summer 2008, the land surface within the caldera has moved upwards as much as 8 inches in some locations. The number and frequency of minor earthquakes is also monitored, and has shown an upward trend. However, U.S. Geological Survey scientists with the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory "see no evidence that another such cataclysmic eruption will occur at Yellowstone in the foreseeable future. The periods between these events are neither regular nor predictable."

It is suggested that no one in this lifetime will live to see a Yellowstone eruption, but it would be a spectacular event and could quite possibly be one of the largest eruptions in the Earth’s history. Due to the size of the magma chamber, the next eruption could be larger than those found in the geological record. The ash flow would be so large that it would suffocate many people in the covered area. The population in the surrounding area would be severely affected, as the lava flow would destroy everything in its way, including houses and structures as well as the beautiful features of Yellowstone National Park. It would cause a catastrophic loss of human lives as well as inestimable monetary loss. By way of comparison, the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption caused an estimated $1bn in damages (the equivalent of $3bn today), and the Yellowstone volcano is expected to erupt with 10,000 times the force of Mount St. Helens.

When searching for a word in their own language in a bilingual dictionary, students will probably find that there is more than one English translation. If they have doubts over which to use, they could try a back translation. This involves looking up the English translations one by one in a monolingual dictionary, and if a word has a definition that matches the word in their language, it is safe to use.

If students hunt for every new word they see or hear, they may spend their whole day with the dictionary in their hand, and that’s not what they should be doing! Students have to be clever and choose the right words to check and the right time to do it. In order to become much more efficient language learners, students should not check meanings immediately. For example, when reading, they should finish the sentence (or better, the paragraph) before even thinking about the dictionary. If they haven’t guessed the meaning and it still seems important, then and only then should they look it up. To avoid interrupting their reading for too long, students should check meaning in their own language using a bilingual dictionary. In the classroom, if students hear a new word or the teacher has written it on the board, they should wait and continue listening. Typically, what the teacher says next may help them to understand the word without having to resort to dictionaries, and simply turning straight to the dictionary may result in students not hearing what follows, and this will make understanding the lesson more difficult.

Generating enthusiasts in the decorative and graphic arts and architecture throughout Europe and beyond, Art Nouveau appeared in a wide variety of strands, and, consequently, it is known by various names, such as the Glasgow Style, or, in the German-speaking world, Jugendstil. Art Nouveau was aimed at modernizing design, seeking to escape the eclectic historical styles that had previously been popular. Artists drew inspiration from both organic and geometric forms, evolving elegant designs that united flowing, natural forms resembling the stems and blossoms of plants. The emphasis on linear contours took precedence over color, which was usually represented with hues such as muted greens, browns, yellows, and blues. The movement was committed to abolishing the traditional hierarchy of the arts, which viewed the so-called liberal arts, such as painting and sculpture, as superior to craft-based decorative arts. The style went out of fashion for the most part long before the First World War, paving the way for the development of Art Deco in the 1920s, but it experienced a popular revival in the 1960s, and it is now seen as an important predecessor - if not an integral component - of modernism.

The desire to abandon the historical styles of the 19th century was an important impetus behind Art Nouveau and one that establishes the movement's modernism. Industrial production was, at that point, widespread, and yet the decorative arts were increasingly dominated by poorly-made objects imitating earlier periods. The practitioners of Art Nouveau sought to revive good workmanship, raise the status of craft, and produce genuinely modern design that reflected the utility of the items they were creating.

The academic system, which dominated art education from the 17th to the 19th century, underpinned the widespread belief that media such as painting and sculpture were superior to crafts such as furniture design and ironwork. The consequence, many believed, was the neglect of good craftsmanship. Art Nouveau artists sought to overturn that belief, aspiring instead to "total works of the arts," the famous Gesamtkunstwerks, that inspired buildings and interiors in which every element worked harmoniously within a related visual vocabulary. In the process, Art Nouveau helped to narrow the gap between the fine and the applied arts, though it is debatable whether this gap has ever been completely closed.

Many Art Nouveau practitioners felt that earlier design had been excessively ornamental, and in wishing to avoid what they perceived as frivolous decoration, they evolved a belief that the function of an object should dictate its form. In practice this was a somewhat flexible ethos, yet it would be an important part of the style's legacy to later modernist movements, most famously the Bauhaus.

The advent of Art Nouveau - literally "New Art" - can be traced to two distinct influences: the first was the introduction, around 1880, of the British Arts and Crafts movement, which, much like Art Nouveau, was a reaction against the cluttered designs and compositions of Victorian-era decorative art. The second was the current vogue for Japanese art, particularly woodblock prints, that swept up many European artists in the 1880s and 90s, including the likes of Gustav Klimt, Emile Gallé, and James Abbott McNeill Whistler. Japanese wood-block prints in particular contained floral and bulbous forms, and "whiplash" curves, all key elements of what would eventually become Art Nouveau.

It is difficult to pinpoint the first work(s) of art that officially launched Art Nouveau. Some argue that the patterned, flowing lines and floral backgrounds found in the paintings of Vincent van Gogh and Paul Gauguin represent Art Nouveau's birth, or perhaps even the decorative lithographs of Henri de ToulouseLautrec, such as Moulin Rouge: La Goulue (1891). But most point to the origins in the decorative arts, and in particular to a book jacket by English architect and designer Arthur Heygate Mackmurdo for the 1883 volume Wren's City Churches. The design depicts serpentine stalks of flowers emanating from one flattened pad at the bottom of the page, clearly reminiscent of Japanese-style wood-block prints.

Siegfried Bing, a German merchant and connoisseur of Japanese art living in Paris, opened a shop named L'Art Nouveau in December 1895, which became one of the main purveyors of the style in furniture and the decorative arts. Before long, the store's name became synonymous with the style in France, Britain, and the United States. Art Nouveau's wide popularity throughout Western and Central Europe, however, meant that it went by several different titles. In German-speaking countries, it was generally called Jugendstil (Youth Style), taken from a Munich magazine called Jugend that popularized it.
Meanwhile, in Vienna - home to Gustav Klimt, Otto Wagner, Josef Hoffmann and the other founders of the Vienna Secession - it was known as Sezessionsstil (Secession Style). It was also known as Modernismo in Spanish, Modernisme in Catalan, and Stile Floreale (floral style) or Stile Liberty in Italy (the latter after Arthur Liberty's fabric shop in London, which helped popularize the style). In France it was commonly called Modern(e)-Style and occasionally Style Guimard after its most famous practitioner there, the architect Hector Guimard, and in the Netherlands it was usually called Nieuwe Kunst (New Art).
Its numerous detractors also gave it several derogatory names: Style Nouille (noodle style) in France, Paling Stijl (eel style) in Belgium, and Bandwurmstil (tapeworm style) in Germany - all names which made playful reference to Art Nouveau's tendency to employ sinuous and flowing lines.

Generating enthusiasts in the decorative and graphic arts and architecture throughout Europe and beyond, Art Nouveau appeared in a wide variety of strands, and, consequently, it is known by various names, such as the Glasgow Style, or, in the German-speaking world, Jugendstil. Art Nouveau was aimed at modernizing design, seeking to escape the eclectic historical styles that had previously been popular. Artists drew inspiration from both organic and geometric forms, evolving elegant designs that united flowing, natural forms resembling the stems and blossoms of plants. The emphasis on linear contours took precedence over color, which was usually represented with hues such as muted greens, browns, yellows, and blues. The movement was committed to abolishing the traditional hierarchy of the arts, which viewed the so-called liberal arts, such as painting and sculpture, as superior to craft-based decorative arts. The style went out of fashion for the most part long before the First World War, paving the way for the development of Art Deco in the 1920s, but it experienced a popular revival in the 1960s, and it is now seen as an important predecessor - if not an integral component - of modernism.

The desire to abandon the historical styles of the 19th century was an important impetus behind Art Nouveau and one that establishes the movement's modernism. Industrial production was, at that point, widespread, and yet the decorative arts were increasingly dominated by poorly-made objects imitating earlier periods. The practitioners of Art Nouveau sought to revive good workmanship, raise the status of craft, and produce genuinely modern design that reflected the utility of the items they were creating.

The academic system, which dominated art education from the 17th to the 19th century, underpinned the widespread belief that media such as painting and sculpture were superior to crafts such as furniture design and ironwork. The consequence, many believed, was the neglect of good craftsmanship. Art Nouveau artists sought to overturn that belief, aspiring instead to "total works of the arts," the famous Gesamtkunstwerks, that inspired buildings and interiors in which every element worked harmoniously within a related visual vocabulary. In the process, Art Nouveau helped to narrow the gap between the fine and the applied arts, though it is debatable whether this gap has ever been completely closed.

Many Art Nouveau practitioners felt that earlier design had been excessively ornamental, and in wishing to avoid what they perceived as frivolous decoration, they evolved a belief that the function of an object should dictate its form. In practice this was a somewhat flexible ethos, yet it would be an important part of the style's legacy to later modernist movements, most famously the Bauhaus.

The advent of Art Nouveau - literally "New Art" - can be traced to two distinct influences: the first was the introduction, around 1880, of the British Arts and Crafts movement, which, much like Art Nouveau, was a reaction against the cluttered designs and compositions of Victorian-era decorative art. The second was the current vogue for Japanese art, particularly woodblock prints, that swept up many European artists in the 1880s and 90s, including the likes of Gustav Klimt, Emile Gallé, and James Abbott McNeill Whistler. Japanese wood-block prints in particular contained floral and bulbous forms, and "whiplash" curves, all key elements of what would eventually become Art Nouveau.

It is difficult to pinpoint the first work(s) of art that officially launched Art Nouveau. Some argue that the patterned, flowing lines and floral backgrounds found in the paintings of Vincent van Gogh and Paul Gauguin represent Art Nouveau's birth, or perhaps even the decorative lithographs of Henri de ToulouseLautrec, such as Moulin Rouge: La Goulue (1891). But most point to the origins in the decorative arts, and in particular to a book jacket by English architect and designer Arthur Heygate Mackmurdo for the 1883 volume Wren's City Churches. The design depicts serpentine stalks of flowers emanating from one flattened pad at the bottom of the page, clearly reminiscent of Japanese-style wood-block prints.

Siegfried Bing, a German merchant and connoisseur of Japanese art living in Paris, opened a shop named L'Art Nouveau in December 1895, which became one of the main purveyors of the style in furniture and the decorative arts. Before long, the store's name became synonymous with the style in France, Britain, and the United States. Art Nouveau's wide popularity throughout Western and Central Europe, however, meant that it went by several different titles. In German-speaking countries, it was generally called Jugendstil (Youth Style), taken from a Munich magazine called Jugend that popularized it.
Meanwhile, in Vienna - home to Gustav Klimt, Otto Wagner, Josef Hoffmann and the other founders of the Vienna Secession - it was known as Sezessionsstil (Secession Style). It was also known as Modernismo in Spanish, Modernisme in Catalan, and Stile Floreale (floral style) or Stile Liberty in Italy (the latter after Arthur Liberty's fabric shop in London, which helped popularize the style). In France it was commonly called Modern(e)-Style and occasionally Style Guimard after its most famous practitioner there, the architect Hector Guimard, and in the Netherlands it was usually called Nieuwe Kunst (New Art).
Its numerous detractors also gave it several derogatory names: Style Nouille (noodle style) in France, Paling Stijl (eel style) in Belgium, and Bandwurmstil (tapeworm style) in Germany - all names which made playful reference to Art Nouveau's tendency to employ sinuous and flowing lines.

Generating enthusiasts in the decorative and graphic arts and architecture throughout Europe and beyond, Art Nouveau appeared in a wide variety of strands, and, consequently, it is known by various names, such as the Glasgow Style, or, in the German-speaking world, Jugendstil. Art Nouveau was aimed at modernizing design, seeking to escape the eclectic historical styles that had previously been popular. Artists drew inspiration from both organic and geometric forms, evolving elegant designs that united flowing, natural forms resembling the stems and blossoms of plants. The emphasis on linear contours took precedence over color, which was usually represented with hues such as muted greens, browns, yellows, and blues. The movement was committed to abolishing the traditional hierarchy of the arts, which viewed the so-called liberal arts, such as painting and sculpture, as superior to craft-based decorative arts. The style went out of fashion for the most part long before the First World War, paving the way for the development of Art Deco in the 1920s, but it experienced a popular revival in the 1960s, and it is now seen as an important predecessor - if not an integral component - of modernism.

The desire to abandon the historical styles of the 19th century was an important impetus behind Art Nouveau and one that establishes the movement's modernism. Industrial production was, at that point, widespread, and yet the decorative arts were increasingly dominated by poorly-made objects imitating earlier periods. The practitioners of Art Nouveau sought to revive good workmanship, raise the status of craft, and produce genuinely modern design that reflected the utility of the items they were creating.

The academic system, which dominated art education from the 17th to the 19th century, underpinned the widespread belief that media such as painting and sculpture were superior to crafts such as furniture design and ironwork. The consequence, many believed, was the neglect of good craftsmanship. Art Nouveau artists sought to overturn that belief, aspiring instead to "total works of the arts," the famous Gesamtkunstwerks, that inspired buildings and interiors in which every element worked harmoniously within a related visual vocabulary. In the process, Art Nouveau helped to narrow the gap between the fine and the applied arts, though it is debatable whether this gap has ever been completely closed.

Many Art Nouveau practitioners felt that earlier design had been excessively ornamental, and in wishing to avoid what they perceived as frivolous decoration, they evolved a belief that the function of an object should dictate its form. In practice this was a somewhat flexible ethos, yet it would be an important part of the style's legacy to later modernist movements, most famously the Bauhaus.

The advent of Art Nouveau - literally "New Art" - can be traced to two distinct influences: the first was the introduction, around 1880, of the British Arts and Crafts movement, which, much like Art Nouveau, was a reaction against the cluttered designs and compositions of Victorian-era decorative art. The second was the current vogue for Japanese art, particularly woodblock prints, that swept up many European artists in the 1880s and 90s, including the likes of Gustav Klimt, Emile Gallé, and James Abbott McNeill Whistler. Japanese wood-block prints in particular contained floral and bulbous forms, and "whiplash" curves, all key elements of what would eventually become Art Nouveau.

It is difficult to pinpoint the first work(s) of art that officially launched Art Nouveau. Some argue that the patterned, flowing lines and floral backgrounds found in the paintings of Vincent van Gogh and Paul Gauguin represent Art Nouveau's birth, or perhaps even the decorative lithographs of Henri de ToulouseLautrec, such as Moulin Rouge: La Goulue (1891). But most point to the origins in the decorative arts, and in particular to a book jacket by English architect and designer Arthur Heygate Mackmurdo for the 1883 volume Wren's City Churches. The design depicts serpentine stalks of flowers emanating from one flattened pad at the bottom of the page, clearly reminiscent of Japanese-style wood-block prints.

Siegfried Bing, a German merchant and connoisseur of Japanese art living in Paris, opened a shop named L'Art Nouveau in December 1895, which became one of the main purveyors of the style in furniture and the decorative arts. Before long, the store's name became synonymous with the style in France, Britain, and the United States. Art Nouveau's wide popularity throughout Western and Central Europe, however, meant that it went by several different titles. In German-speaking countries, it was generally called Jugendstil (Youth Style), taken from a Munich magazine called Jugend that popularized it.
Meanwhile, in Vienna - home to Gustav Klimt, Otto Wagner, Josef Hoffmann and the other founders of the Vienna Secession - it was known as Sezessionsstil (Secession Style). It was also known as Modernismo in Spanish, Modernisme in Catalan, and Stile Floreale (floral style) or Stile Liberty in Italy (the latter after Arthur Liberty's fabric shop in London, which helped popularize the style). In France it was commonly called Modern(e)-Style and occasionally Style Guimard after its most famous practitioner there, the architect Hector Guimard, and in the Netherlands it was usually called Nieuwe Kunst (New Art).
Its numerous detractors also gave it several derogatory names: Style Nouille (noodle style) in France, Paling Stijl (eel style) in Belgium, and Bandwurmstil (tapeworm style) in Germany - all names which made playful reference to Art Nouveau's tendency to employ sinuous and flowing lines.