READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1–13, which are based on Reading Passage 1.

Steelmaking

Steelmaking has played a pivotal role in the development of ancient, medieval, and modern technological societies. Some of the earliest processes of steelmaking were established during the classical era in Ancient Iran and Ancient China. However, throughout much of human history, steel has only been made in small quantities, and mass production of steel did not become feasible until the 19th century. Since then, steelmaking has become a key indicator of modern technological development and an important part of the global economy.

Steel can be found in a variety of products and structures all over the world, but what makes it such an integral building material? Steel is an alloy, which means that it is manufactured by combining iron with another element such as carbon. The resulting alloy can be up to one thousand times stronger than iron, and this is why steel has become invaluable in the construction industry. Although steel was produced by early human civilizations, it was not until the 19th century that Sir Henry Bessemer’s new process enabled the inexpensive production of mass-produced steel. Bessemer’s steel production process involved removing impurities from iron through the use of an air blast, and this innovation led to a boom in steel production

Modern steelmaking processes can be divided into three steps: primary, secondary and tertiary. Primary steelmaking involves smelting iron into steel. Secondary steelmaking involves the removal or addition of other elements to strengthen the steel. Tertiary steelmaking involves casting the steel into various forms such as sheets or rolls. Today, two distinct processes make up the bulk of worldwide primary steelmaking: the Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) process and the Electric Arc Furnace EAF process.

The BOF process was invented in 1948 by Swiss engineer Robert Durrer, and it was derived directly from the Bessemer process. In the BOF process, the furnace, commonly known as a blast furnace, is very large and contains several visible components. This technology and can be traced back to Ancient China, where the same method was used for smaller-scale metal production. Today, coal is used to melt iron ore to produce carbon-rich pig iron. Oxygen is then blown through the molten pig iron, lowering the carbon content of the alloy, and transforming it into low-carbon steel. The process requires a continuous supply of coal and massive furnaces that produce high carbon dioxide emissions. Most modern furnaces can accommodate 400 tons of iron and convert it into steel in approximately 30 minutes, whereas earlier open-hearth furnaces would require up to 12 hours to complete the same process.

The furnaces used in the EAF process are typically much smaller than blast furnaces, and operate more efficiently. Whereas BOF steelmaking utilizes iron ore and coal as its common raw materials, the EAF furnace functions using scrap steel, which is steel that has already been produced and is ready to be recycled. Operation of the furnace does not rely on a continuous supply of coal, as it is powered by a current that runs through a graphite electrode to create an arc. It is crucial that these graphite electrodes are of high quality to guarantee that an electric arc is generated efficiently by the current. In some EAF systems, carbon electrodes can also be used, as these also provide excellent thermal conductivity. When an arc is formed with the graphite electrode, the temperature is raised to 3000 degrees Celsius, ensuring an efficient melting process. Compared with a blast furnace, it is simpler to regulate the temperature in an EAF system, which further improves its efficiency. Another benefit of using the EAF process is that it can be used to produce all types of steel, including special metals and products. Furthermore, its lower installation cost and faster operating speed make the EAF process more attractive to companies who are choosing between the various types of processing equipment available.

Companies using the BOF process are required to find reliable sources of various raw materials, most notably iron, coal, and limestone. As a result, many of the earliest large-scale steelmaking firms like U.S. Steel found it economically beneficial to integrate their production process into coal and iron mining operations. Because these mining firms also operated the necessary railroads, this provided a cheap source of raw materials for BOF companies. On the other hand, because EAF steelmakers only require scrap steel as an input, they have a much simpler input process. Provided that scrap steel remains in abundant market supply, EAF companies have quick and affordable access to the necessary raw material.

According to an industry-wide study, raw materials comprise roughly 50% of BOF costs and 75% of EAF costs. The overall expense of each process is determined by the difference between the costs of their respective raw materials. However, in the end, these cost differences tend to even out. The main difference between the two processes lies in the capital costs. For instance, in the case of an EAF mini mill, the cost per ton of capacity is only $300, whereas a BOF company will face a cost in excess of $1,000 per ton of capacity. Thus, the barrier for entry is much lower for EAF companies, and this is why a dramatic rise in the number of EAF mini mills has occurred over the past fifty years.

READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1–13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.

Steelmaking

Steelmaking has played a pivotal role in the development of ancient, medieval, and modern technological societies. Some of the earliest processes of steelmaking were established during the classical era in Ancient Iran and Ancient China. However, throughout much of human history, steel has only been made in small quantities, and mass production of steel did not become feasible until the 19th century. Since then, steelmaking has become a key indicator of modern technological development and an important part of the global economy.

Steel can be found in a variety of products and structures all over the world, but what makes it such an integral building material? Steel is an alloy, which means that it is manufactured by combining iron with another element such as carbon. The resulting alloy can be up to one thousand times stronger than iron, and this is why steel has become invaluable in the construction industry. Although steel was produced by early human civilizations, it was not until the 19th century that Sir Henry Bessemer’s new process enabled the inexpensive production of mass-produced steel. Bessemer’s steel production process involved removing impurities from iron through the use of an air blast, and this innovation led to a boom in steel production

Modern steelmaking processes can be divided into three steps: primary, secondary and tertiary. Primary steelmaking involves smelting iron into steel. Secondary steelmaking involves the removal or addition of other elements to strengthen the steel. Tertiary steelmaking involves casting the steel into various forms such as sheets or rolls. Today, two distinct processes make up the bulk of worldwide primary steelmaking: the Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) process and the Electric Arc Furnace EAF process.

The BOF process was invented in 1948 by Swiss engineer Robert Durrer, and it was derived directly from the Bessemer process. In the BOF process, the furnace, commonly known as a blast furnace, is very large and contains several visible components. This technology and can be traced back to Ancient China, where the same method was used for smaller-scale metal production. Today, coal is used to melt iron ore to produce carbon-rich pig iron. Oxygen is then blown through the molten pig iron, lowering the carbon content of the alloy, and transforming it into low-carbon steel. The process requires a continuous supply of coal and massive furnaces that produce high carbon dioxide emissions. Most modern furnaces can accommodate 400 tons of iron and convert it into steel in approximately 30 minutes, whereas earlier open-hearth furnaces would require up to 12 hours to complete the same process.

The furnaces used in the EAF process are typically much smaller than blast furnaces, and operate more efficiently. Whereas BOF steelmaking utilizes iron ore and coal as its common raw materials, the EAF furnace functions using scrap steel, which is steel that has already been produced and is ready to be recycled. Operation of the furnace does not rely on a continuous supply of coal, as it is powered by a current that runs through a graphite electrode to create an arc. It is crucial that these graphite electrodes are of high quality to guarantee that an electric arc is generated efficiently by the current. In some EAF systems, carbon electrodes can also be used, as these also provide excellent thermal conductivity. When an arc is formed with the graphite electrode, the temperature is raised to 3000 degrees Celsius, ensuring an efficient melting process. Compared with a blast furnace, it is simpler to regulate the temperature in an EAF system, which further improves its efficiency. Another benefit of using the EAF process is that it can be used to produce all types of steel, including special metals and products. Furthermore, its lower installation cost and faster operating speed make the EAF process more attractive to companies who are choosing between the various types of processing equipment available.

Companies using the BOF process are required to find reliable sources of various raw materials, most notably iron, coal, and limestone. As a result, many of the earliest large-scale steelmaking firms like U.S. Steel found it economically beneficial to integrate their production process into coal and iron mining operations. Because these mining firms also operated the necessary railroads, this provided a cheap source of raw materials for BOF companies. On the other hand, because EAF steelmakers only require scrap steel as an input, they have a much simpler input process. Provided that scrap steel remains in abundant market supply, EAF companies have quick and affordable access to the necessary raw material.

According to an industry-wide study, raw materials comprise roughly 50% of BOF costs and 75% of EAF costs. The overall expense of each process is determined by the difference between the costs of their respective raw materials. However, in the end, these cost differences tend to even out. The main difference between the two processes lies in the capital costs. For instance, in the case of an EAF mini mill, the cost per ton of capacity is only $300, whereas a BOF company will face a cost in excess of $1,000 per ton of capacity. Thus, the barrier for entry is much lower for EAF companies, and this is why a dramatic rise in the number of EAF mini mills has occurred over the past fifty years.

Questions 4–9

Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 4-9 on your answer sheet.

The Two Primary Methods for Producing Steel

Method	Description	Advantages/Disadvantages
• 4. Furnace (or Blast Furnace)	• 5. used to melt iron ore • Oxygen lowers carbon content	Faster than open hearth furnaces • Produces high • 6. emissions
Electric Arc Furnace	• uses 7. as a raw material • Powered by a current running through an 8.	• Easier to control their 9. Produces several types of Steel Lower installation expense

READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1–13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.

Steelmaking

Steelmaking has played a pivotal role in the development of ancient, medieval, and modern technological societies. Some of the earliest processes of steelmaking were established during the classical era in Ancient Iran and Ancient China. However, throughout much of human history, steel has only been made in small quantities, and mass production of steel did not become feasible until the 19th century. Since then, steelmaking has become a key indicator of modern technological development and an important part of the global economy.

Steel can be found in a variety of products and structures all over the world, but what makes it such an integral building material? Steel is an alloy, which means that it is manufactured by combining iron with another element such as carbon. The resulting alloy can be up to one thousand times stronger than iron, and this is why steel has become invaluable in the construction industry. Although steel was produced by early human civilizations, it was not until the 19th century that Sir Henry Bessemer’s new process enabled the inexpensive production of mass-produced steel. Bessemer’s steel production process involved removing impurities from iron through the use of an air blast, and this innovation led to a boom in steel production

Modern steelmaking processes can be divided into three steps: primary, secondary and tertiary. Primary steelmaking involves smelting iron into steel. Secondary steelmaking involves the removal or addition of other elements to strengthen the steel. Tertiary steelmaking involves casting the steel into various forms such as sheets or rolls. Today, two distinct processes make up the bulk of worldwide primary steelmaking: the Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) process and the Electric Arc Furnace EAF process.

The BOF process was invented in 1948 by Swiss engineer Robert Durrer, and it was derived directly from the Bessemer process. In the BOF process, the furnace, commonly known as a blast furnace, is very large and contains several visible components. This technology and can be traced back to Ancient China, where the same method was used for smaller-scale metal production. Today, coal is used to melt iron ore to produce carbon-rich pig iron. Oxygen is then blown through the molten pig iron, lowering the carbon content of the alloy, and transforming it into low-carbon steel. The process requires a continuous supply of coal and massive furnaces that produce high carbon dioxide emissions. Most modern furnaces can accommodate 400 tons of iron and convert it into steel in approximately 30 minutes, whereas earlier open-hearth furnaces would require up to 12 hours to complete the same process.

The furnaces used in the EAF process are typically much smaller than blast furnaces, and operate more efficiently. Whereas BOF steelmaking utilizes iron ore and coal as its common raw materials, the EAF furnace functions using scrap steel, which is steel that has already been produced and is ready to be recycled. Operation of the furnace does not rely on a continuous supply of coal, as it is powered by a current that runs through a graphite electrode to create an arc. It is crucial that these graphite electrodes are of high quality to guarantee that an electric arc is generated efficiently by the current. In some EAF systems, carbon electrodes can also be used, as these also provide excellent thermal conductivity. When an arc is formed with the graphite electrode, the temperature is raised to 3000 degrees Celsius, ensuring an efficient melting process. Compared with a blast furnace, it is simpler to regulate the temperature in an EAF system, which further improves its efficiency. Another benefit of using the EAF process is that it can be used to produce all types of steel, including special metals and products. Furthermore, its lower installation cost and faster operating speed make the EAF process more attractive to companies who are choosing between the various types of processing equipment available.

Companies using the BOF process are required to find reliable sources of various raw materials, most notably iron, coal, and limestone. As a result, many of the earliest large-scale steelmaking firms like U.S. Steel found it economically beneficial to integrate their production process into coal and iron mining operations. Because these mining firms also operated the necessary railroads, this provided a cheap source of raw materials for BOF companies. On the other hand, because EAF steelmakers only require scrap steel as an input, they have a much simpler input process. Provided that scrap steel remains in abundant market supply, EAF companies have quick and affordable access to the necessary raw material.

According to an industry-wide study, raw materials comprise roughly 50% of BOF costs and 75% of EAF costs. The overall expense of each process is determined by the difference between the costs of their respective raw materials. However, in the end, these cost differences tend to even out. The main difference between the two processes lies in the capital costs. For instance, in the case of an EAF mini mill, the cost per ton of capacity is only $300, whereas a BOF company will face a cost in excess of $1,000 per ton of capacity. Thus, the barrier for entry is much lower for EAF companies, and this is why a dramatic rise in the number of EAF mini mills has occurred over the past fifty years.

Questions 10~13

Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 2?

Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the text for each answer.

In boxes 10-13 on your answer sheet, write

TRUEif the statement agrees with the information

FALSEif the statement contradicts the information

NOT GIVENif there is no information on the given statement

10. BOF companies have the most difficulty sourcing limestone for operations.

11. US Steel combined steelmaking with mining operations to make it more economically viable.

12. EAF companies are less expensive to start up than BOF companies are.

13. EAF mini mills have fallen out of favour over the past fifty years.

READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14–27, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.

Pangaea: The Last Supercontinent

A

Pangaea was the most recent supercontinent to have existed, and the first to be reconstructed by geologists. It was centred on the equator and surrounded by the super ocean Panthalassa. Pangaea formed from earlier continental units during the Carboniferous period, around 335 million years ago, and existed through the late Palaeozoic and early Mesozoic eras, eventually breaking apart about 200 million years ago at the end of the Triassic. The concept that the continents once existed as one massive land mass was first hypothesised by Alfred Wegener, who had earlier hypothesized the concept of continental drift. Wegener proposed that, prior to separating and moving to their modern-day locations, all the continents had formed a single supercontinent that he referred to as the "Urkontinent".

B

The first evidence suggesting the existence of Pangaea was centred around the geography of the continents bordering the Atlantic Ocean. The coastlines of North and South America seemed to fit those of Europe and Africa, and this was evident even in early expeditions to chart the coasts. In 1596, the cartographer and geographer Abraham Ortelius suggested that these continents were once joined and later separated. Painstaking reconstructions of coastlines at a depth of 900 metres showed a discrepancy in coastline contours of only around 80 miles, which could not simply be a coincidence. In particular, matching geological trends between the western coast of Africa and the eastern coast of South America provided strong evidence for the existence of Pangaea.

C

In the ensuing years, an increasing amount of evidence has been put forward to support Wegener’s hypothesis. Fossils show the existence of identical species on continents that are now located very far apart. For instance, fossils of the therapsid Lystrosaurus have been uncovered in Antarctica, India, and South Africa, which at one point must have been closely joined. Likewise, fossilized remains of the freshwater reptile Mesosaurus have been uncovered only in specific regions on the eastern coast of South America and in West Africa. The theory of the supercontinent is also supported by paleomagnetic studies of rocks. When rocks form, they assume the magnetic properties of the Earth, which indicates in which direction the poles lie relative to the rocks. This allows geologists to determine the extent of continental drift, helping them to reconstruct earlier continental positions. Further evidence for Pangaea is apparent in the continuity of mountains. The Appalachian Mountains chain, for example, extends from the south-eastern United States to the Caledonites of modern day Ireland, Britain, Greenland, and Scandinavia, but is now separated by the Atlantic Ocean.

D

Pangaea existed as a supercontinent for 160 million years, and several important developments in the evolution of life took place during that time. The seas of the Early Carboniferous teemed with corals, brachiopods, and the first bony fish, while the land was mainly inhabited by insects and other arthropods. By the time Pangaea began to break up, however, the seas were dominated by molluscs, ichthyosaurs, sharks, and rays, while dinosaurs and the first true mammals roamed the lush forests on land. This evolution of life was directly influenced by environmental conditions created by the assembly of Pangaea. When the majority of the continental crust came together into one landmass, the length of available seacoasts was greatly reduced. Continental assembly and uplift also resulted in an increasingly arid climate over a large proportion of the Earth’s surface. This aided the evolution of seed plants and egg-laying species, whose seeds and eggs were better adapted to dry climates. The early drying trend was particularly impactful in western Pangaea, which became the centre for the evolution and geographical spread of several bird, mammal, and reptile species.

E

Many species that lived on Pangaea showed a wide geographical distribution, partly due to the lack of oceanic barriers. However, research has also indicated that many Pangaea species were highly provincial by nature, only inhabiting a limited geographical range despite the lack of geographical barriers. One explanation for this is that strong variations in climate were present throughout Pangaea, limiting the spread of some species. For instance, early seed plants called pteridosperms had adapted to the cold of their southern region, and thus were blocked from spreading throughout Pangaea by the warming climate.

F

Mass extinctions such as the Permian–Triassic and Triassic-Jurassic extinction events also played a role in species distribution. These events allowed opportunistic species, such as Lystrosaurus, to spread to every corner of Pangaea. Based on geological studies, it seems feasible that the geography of Pangaea may have exacerbated the Permian-Triassic extinction event. For instance, the reduced area of continental shelf may have left marine species vulnerable to extinction due to a lack of suitable habitats. Moreover, the formation of Pangaea resulted in reduced seafloor spreading, which means that less ocean floor was formed as a result of magma rising to the Earth’s crust. This may have reduced the number of islands that could have served as viable habitats for many marine species.

Questions 14~18

Reading Passage 2 has eleven paragraphs, A–F.

Choose the correct heading for paragraphs B-F from the list of headings below.

Drag and drop the correct number i–viii in boxes 14–18 on the answer sheet.

List of Headings

i
ii
iii
iv
v
vi
vii
viii

The potential for future supercontinents
Evolution during Pangaea’s lifetime
The origin of the Pangaea theory
The effect of extinction events on species
Paleontological and geological evidence
Supercontinents prior to Pangaea
The effect of climate barriers on species
Matching coasts of modern continents

ExampleAnswer
Section Aiii

14.Section B
15.Section C
16.Section D
17.Section E
18.Section F

READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14–27, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.

Pangaea: The Last Supercontinent

A

Pangaea was the most recent supercontinent to have existed, and the first to be reconstructed by geologists. It was centred on the equator and surrounded by the super ocean Panthalassa. Pangaea formed from earlier continental units during the Carboniferous period, around 335 million years ago, and existed through the late Palaeozoic and early Mesozoic eras, eventually breaking apart about 200 million years ago at the end of the Triassic. The concept that the continents once existed as one massive land mass was first hypothesised by Alfred Wegener, who had earlier hypothesized the concept of continental drift. Wegener proposed that, prior to separating and moving to their modern-day locations, all the continents had formed a single supercontinent that he referred to as the "Urkontinent".

B

The first evidence suggesting the existence of Pangaea was centred around the geography of the continents bordering the Atlantic Ocean. The coastlines of North and South America seemed to fit those of Europe and Africa, and this was evident even in early expeditions to chart the coasts. In 1596, the cartographer and geographer Abraham Ortelius suggested that these continents were once joined and later separated. Painstaking reconstructions of coastlines at a depth of 900 metres showed a discrepancy in coastline contours of only around 80 miles, which could not simply be a coincidence. In particular, matching geological trends between the western coast of Africa and the eastern coast of South America provided strong evidence for the existence of Pangaea.

C

In the ensuing years, an increasing amount of evidence has been put forward to support Wegener’s hypothesis. Fossils show the existence of identical species on continents that are now located very far apart. For instance, fossils of the therapsid Lystrosaurus have been uncovered in Antarctica, India, and South Africa, which at one point must have been closely joined. Likewise, fossilized remains of the freshwater reptile Mesosaurus have been uncovered only in specific regions on the eastern coast of South America and in West Africa. The theory of the supercontinent is also supported by paleomagnetic studies of rocks. When rocks form, they assume the magnetic properties of the Earth, which indicates in which direction the poles lie relative to the rocks. This allows geologists to determine the extent of continental drift, helping them to reconstruct earlier continental positions. Further evidence for Pangaea is apparent in the continuity of mountains. The Appalachian Mountains chain, for example, extends from the south-eastern United States to the Caledonites of modern day Ireland, Britain, Greenland, and Scandinavia, but is now separated by the Atlantic Ocean.

D

Pangaea existed as a supercontinent for 160 million years, and several important developments in the evolution of life took place during that time. The seas of the Early Carboniferous teemed with corals, brachiopods, and the first bony fish, while the land was mainly inhabited by insects and other arthropods. By the time Pangaea began to break up, however, the seas were dominated by molluscs, ichthyosaurs, sharks, and rays, while dinosaurs and the first true mammals roamed the lush forests on land. This evolution of life was directly influenced by environmental conditions created by the assembly of Pangaea. When the majority of the continental crust came together into one landmass, the length of available seacoasts was greatly reduced. Continental assembly and uplift also resulted in an increasingly arid climate over a large proportion of the Earth’s surface. This aided the evolution of seed plants and egg-laying species, whose seeds and eggs were better adapted to dry climates. The early drying trend was particularly impactful in western Pangaea, which became the centre for the evolution and geographical spread of several bird, mammal, and reptile species.

E

Many species that lived on Pangaea showed a wide geographical distribution, partly due to the lack of oceanic barriers. However, research has also indicated that many Pangaea species were highly provincial by nature, only inhabiting a limited geographical range despite the lack of geographical barriers. One explanation for this is that strong variations in climate were present throughout Pangaea, limiting the spread of some species. For instance, early seed plants called pteridosperms had adapted to the cold of their southern region, and thus were blocked from spreading throughout Pangaea by the warming climate.

F

Mass extinctions such as the Permian–Triassic and Triassic-Jurassic extinction events also played a role in species distribution. These events allowed opportunistic species, such as Lystrosaurus, to spread to every corner of Pangaea. Based on geological studies, it seems feasible that the geography of Pangaea may have exacerbated the Permian-Triassic extinction event. For instance, the reduced area of continental shelf may have left marine species vulnerable to extinction due to a lack of suitable habitats. Moreover, the formation of Pangaea resulted in reduced seafloor spreading, which means that less ocean floor was formed as a result of magma rising to the Earth’s crust. This may have reduced the number of islands that could have served as viable habitats for many marine species.

Questions 19~23

Complete the summary using the list of words, A-I, below.

Write the correct letter, A-I, in boxes 19-23 on your answer sheet.

Evidence to support the Pangaea theory

The earliest evidence that a supercontinent existed was seen by mapping the19.

of present-day continental coastlines. Later, fossil evidence showed that the same 20.

existed on land masses that are now very far apart. Studies on the magnetic characteristics of 21.

have provided further evidence for Pangaea. This has allowed geologists to calculate how much 22.

the continents had experienced. Lastly, it has been noted that some 23.

continue across different continents that are now separated by oceans.

A. drift
D. rocks
G. mountains

B. climate
E. contours
H. eggs

C. equator
F. magma
I. species

READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14–26, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.

Pangaea: The Last Supercontinent

A

Pangaea was the most recent supercontinent to have existed, and the first to be reconstructed by geologists. It was centred on the equator and surrounded by the super ocean Panthalassa. Pangaea formed from earlier continental units during the Carboniferous period, around 335 million years ago, and existed through the late Palaeozoic and early Mesozoic eras, eventually breaking apart about 200 million years ago at the end of the Triassic. The concept that the continents once existed as one massive land mass was first hypothesised by Alfred Wegener, who had earlier hypothesized the concept of continental drift. Wegener proposed that, prior to separating and moving to their modern-day locations, all the continents had formed a single supercontinent that he referred to as the "Urkontinent".

B

The first evidence suggesting the existence of Pangaea was centred around the geography of the continents bordering the Atlantic Ocean. The coastlines of North and South America seemed to fit those of Europe and Africa, and this was evident even in early expeditions to chart the coasts. In 1596, the cartographer and geographer Abraham Ortelius suggested that these continents were once joined and later separated. Painstaking reconstructions of coastlines at a depth of 900 metres showed a discrepancy in coastline contours of only around 80 miles, which could not simply be a coincidence. In particular, matching geological trends between the western coast of Africa and the eastern coast of South America provided strong evidence for the existence of Pangaea.

C

In the ensuing years, an increasing amount of evidence has been put forward to support Wegener’s hypothesis. Fossils show the existence of identical species on continents that are now located very far apart. For instance, fossils of the therapsid Lystrosaurus have been uncovered in Antarctica, India, and South Africa, which at one point must have been closely joined. Likewise, fossilized remains of the freshwater reptile Mesosaurus have been uncovered only in specific regions on the eastern coast of South America and in West Africa. The theory of the supercontinent is also supported by paleomagnetic studies of rocks. When rocks form, they assume the magnetic properties of the Earth, which indicates in which direction the poles lie relative to the rocks. This allows geologists to determine the extent of continental drift, helping them to reconstruct earlier continental positions. Further evidence for Pangaea is apparent in the continuity of mountains. The Appalachian Mountains chain, for example, extends from the south-eastern United States to the Caledonites of modern day Ireland, Britain, Greenland, and Scandinavia, but is now separated by the Atlantic Ocean.

D

Pangaea existed as a supercontinent for 160 million years, and several important developments in the evolution of life took place during that time. The seas of the Early Carboniferous teemed with corals, brachiopods, and the first bony fish, while the land was mainly inhabited by insects and other arthropods. By the time Pangaea began to break up, however, the seas were dominated by molluscs, ichthyosaurs, sharks, and rays, while dinosaurs and the first true mammals roamed the lush forests on land. This evolution of life was directly influenced by environmental conditions created by the assembly of Pangaea. When the majority of the continental crust came together into one landmass, the length of available seacoasts was greatly reduced. Continental assembly and uplift also resulted in an increasingly arid climate over a large proportion of the Earth’s surface. This aided the evolution of seed plants and egg-laying species, whose seeds and eggs were better adapted to dry climates. The early drying trend was particularly impactful in western Pangaea, which became the centre for the evolution and geographical spread of several bird, mammal, and reptile species.

E

Many species that lived on Pangaea showed a wide geographical distribution, partly due to the lack of oceanic barriers. However, research has also indicated that many Pangaea species were highly provincial by nature, only inhabiting a limited geographical range despite the lack of geographical barriers. One explanation for this is that strong variations in climate were present throughout Pangaea, limiting the spread of some species. For instance, early seed plants called pteridosperms had adapted to the cold of their southern region, and thus were blocked from spreading throughout Pangaea by the warming climate.

F

Mass extinctions such as the Permian–Triassic and Triassic-Jurassic extinction events also played a role in species distribution. These events allowed opportunistic species, such as Lystrosaurus, to spread to every corner of Pangaea. Based on geological studies, it seems feasible that the geography of Pangaea may have exacerbated the Permian-Triassic extinction event. For instance, the reduced area of continental shelf may have left marine species vulnerable to extinction due to a lack of suitable habitats. Moreover, the formation of Pangaea resulted in reduced seafloor spreading, which means that less ocean floor was formed as a result of magma rising to the Earth’s crust. This may have reduced the number of islands that could have served as viable habitats for many marine species.

Questions 24~26

Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 2?

In boxes 24~26 on your answer sheet, write

TRUEif the statement agrees with the information

FALSEif the statement contradicts the information

NOT GIVENif there is no information on the given statement

24. The formation of Pangaea resulted in much of Earth’s climate becoming drier.

25. Pteridosperms adapted in order to thrive in all regions of Pangaea.

26. Lystrosaurus was an apex predator during its existence on Pangaea.

READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40, which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.

Investigating the Sense of Touch

A

Our sense of touch is controlled by our somatosensory system - an extensive network of nerve endings and touch receptors in the skin. Without this system, we would be unable to detect tactile sensations such as smoothness, roughness, pressure, pain, and temperature changes. Four main types of receptors comprise the somatosensory system: mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, pain receptors, and proprioceptors. Mechanoreceptors, the most common of which are named Merkel’s disks and Meissner’s corpuscles, perceive sensations like texture, pressure, and vibrations. Thermoreceptors perceive sensations related to the temperature of objects in contact or in close proximity to the skin. Pain receptors, or nociceptors, perceive pain or stimuli that have the potential to damage the skin and other bodily tissues. Proprioceptors perceive the position of our body parts in relation to each other and our surroundings, and are vital for basic functions such as feeding or clothing ourselves.

B

Research has shown that touch is the first sense to develop in the foetus. The development of an infant's sense of touch and how it relates to the development of the other main senses has been studied in great depth. Human babies who lack the sense of touch have been observed to have lower survival rates, even if they have perfect vision and hearing, due to their inability to detect pain and temperature extremes. On the other hand, those born with sight and hearing problems, but who can still detect touch, tend to experience far fewer problems. Moreover, from a behavioural development perspective, the nurturing touch of a parent triggers the release of oxytocin in the infant. This hormone increases feelings of pleasure and intimacy, strengthening parent-child bonding and social-emotional development. In contrast, research indicates that infants who do not receive enough nurturing touch from their parents tend to behave aggressively later in their development, in an effort to seek out the sensation of touch.

C

One particular study was carried out by Harry Harlow on rhesus monkeys, whose sense of touch is highly developed and comparable to that of human infants. When they are born, the monkeys have poor sight and hearing, but they cling tightly to their mothers. Harlow’s controversial study involved the observation of new-born rhesus monkeys that were reared with an artificial cloth mother - a device constructed from wire and wrapped in soft cloth - and another surrogate mother made only of hard wire. Although only the wire mother held a feeding bottle, the monkeys spent more time with the cloth mother, which provided comfort and tactile stimulation. These findings indicated that the monkeys prioritized touch and warmth over sustenance. Harlow also observed that monkeys that were only provided access to the wire mother were less emotionally stable as adults than those who had spent time with the cloth mother.

D

A great deal of research has focused on measuring and determining the causes for differences between individuals in the sense of fine touch. One particularly well-researched area is passive tactile spatial acuity, which refers to the ability to detect the fine spatial details of an object pressed against the skin. Several approaches have been used to measure passive tactile spatial acuity, the most well-documented of which is the grating orientation task. This approach requires test participants to determine the orientation of a grooved surface that is applied in two different possible orientations to their fingertips. Many of the findings of such studies have indicated a significant decrease in passive tactile spatial acuity with age. The reasons behind this decrease are yet to be fully determined, but some experts in the field have hypothesized that the aging process includes a loss of tactile receptors.

E

More recent studies have shown surprising correlations between the size of one’s fingertips and their sensitivity to touch stimuli. Researchers have observed a higher sensitivity to touch among adults with smaller index fingertips. This also explains why women generally tend to have a more acute sense of touch in their fingertips than men do. It has been concluded that the density of mechanoreceptors that detect subtle vibrations is far greater in smaller fingertips. Similar studies have noted that the same holds true among groups of children of the same age; those with smaller fingers tend to have higher sensitivity to stimuli.

F

In 2019, a breakthrough study shed new light on why human fingertips are so sensitive and showed that fingerprints play a key role. Dr Ewa Jarocka and his team from Umeå University in Sweden asked 12 test subjects to each sit in a dentist’s chair, with their right arm raised and their fingernails firmly attached to a plastic holder. The researchers then used an automated device to move a surface of raised dots over each subject’s exposed fingertips. Electrodes inserted into an arm of each subject allowed the team to monitor the response of single neurons in the fingertips and create a map showing the receptive field for each neuron. They found that each receptive field spanned multiple fingertip ridges, and that the ridges were particularly sensitive areas. Jarocka concluded that the individual nerve fibres that contact the mechanoreceptors in the fingertips closely match the ridges of the fingerprints, indicating that these ridges play a crucial role in our sense of touch.

Questions 27~32

Reading Passage 2 has eleven paragraphs, A–F.

Choose the correct heading for paragraphs B-F from the list of headings below.

Drag and drop the correct number i–viii in boxes 14–18 on the answer sheet.

List of Headings

i
ii
iii
iv
v
vi

A on the role of touch in non-human subjects
The various receptors within the skin
A loss of touch sensitivity with age
The role of fingerprints in the sense of touch
A correlation between finger size and sensitivity
The importance of touch in early human development

27.Paragraph A
28.Paragraph B
29.Paragraph C
30.Paragraph D
31.Paragraph E
32.Paragraph F

READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27–40, which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.

Investigating the Sense of Touch

A

Our sense of touch is controlled by our somatosensory system - an extensive network of nerve endings and touch receptors in the skin. Without this system, we would be unable to detect tactile sensations such as smoothness, roughness, pressure, pain, and temperature changes. Four main types of receptors comprise the somatosensory system: mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, pain receptors, and proprioceptors. Mechanoreceptors, the most common of which are named Merkel’s disks and Meissner’s corpuscles, perceive sensations like texture, pressure, and vibrations. Thermoreceptors perceive sensations related to the temperature of objects in contact or in close proximity to the skin. Pain receptors, or nociceptors, perceive pain or stimuli that have the potential to damage the skin and other bodily tissues. Proprioceptors perceive the position of our body parts in relation to each other and our surroundings, and are vital for basic functions such as feeding or clothing ourselves.

B

Research has shown that touch is the first sense to develop in the foetus. The development of an infant's sense of touch and how it relates to the development of the other main senses has been studied in great depth. Human babies who lack the sense of touch have been observed to have lower survival rates, even if they have perfect vision and hearing, due to their inability to detect pain and temperature extremes. On the other hand, those born with sight and hearing problems, but who can still detect touch, tend to experience far fewer problems. Moreover, from a behavioural development perspective, the nurturing touch of a parent triggers the release of oxytocin in the infant. This hormone increases feelings of pleasure and intimacy, strengthening parent-child bonding and social-emotional development. In contrast, research indicates that infants who do not receive enough nurturing touch from their parents tend to behave aggressively later in their development, in an effort to seek out the sensation of touch.

C

One particular study was carried out by Harry Harlow on rhesus monkeys, whose sense of touch is highly developed and comparable to that of human infants. When they are born, the monkeys have poor sight and hearing, but they cling tightly to their mothers. Harlow’s controversial study involved the observation of new-born rhesus monkeys that were reared with an artificial cloth mother - a device constructed from wire and wrapped in soft cloth - and another surrogate mother made only of hard wire. Although only the wire mother held a feeding bottle, the monkeys spent more time with the cloth mother, which provided comfort and tactile stimulation. These findings indicated that the monkeys prioritized touch and warmth over sustenance. Harlow also observed that monkeys that were only provided access to the wire mother were less emotionally stable as adults than those who had spent time with the cloth mother.

D

A great deal of research has focused on measuring and determining the causes for differences between individuals in the sense of fine touch. One particularly well-researched area is passive tactile spatial acuity, which refers to the ability to detect the fine spatial details of an object pressed against the skin. Several approaches have been used to measure passive tactile spatial acuity, the most well-documented of which is the grating orientation task. This approach requires test participants to determine the orientation of a grooved surface that is applied in two different possible orientations to their fingertips. Many of the findings of such studies have indicated a significant decrease in passive tactile spatial acuity with age. The reasons behind this decrease are yet to be fully determined, but some experts in the field have hypothesized that the aging process includes a loss of tactile receptors.

E

More recent studies have shown surprising correlations between the size of one’s fingertips and their sensitivity to touch stimuli. Researchers have observed a higher sensitivity to touch among adults with smaller index fingertips. This also explains why women generally tend to have a more acute sense of touch in their fingertips than men do. It has been concluded that the density of mechanoreceptors that detect subtle vibrations is far greater in smaller fingertips. Similar studies have noted that the same holds true among groups of children of the same age; those with smaller fingers tend to have higher sensitivity to stimuli.

F

In 2019, a breakthrough study shed new light on why human fingertips are so sensitive and showed that fingerprints play a key role. Dr Ewa Jarocka and his team from Umeå University in Sweden asked 12 test subjects to each sit in a dentist’s chair, with their right arm raised and their fingernails firmly attached to a plastic holder. The researchers then used an automated device to move a surface of raised dots over each subject’s exposed fingertips. Electrodes inserted into an arm of each subject allowed the team to monitor the response of single neurons in the fingertips and create a map showing the receptive field for each neuron. They found that each receptive field spanned multiple fingertip ridges, and that the ridges were particularly sensitive areas. Jarocka concluded that the individual nerve fibres that contact the mechanoreceptors in the fingertips closely match the ridges of the fingerprints, indicating that these ridges play a crucial role in our sense of touch.

Questions 37-40

Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 37-40 on your answer sheet.

37. Humans rely on to detect the position of their body in relation to the environment.

38. Harry Harlow used to construct two different surrogate mothers.

39. Studies have shown that is a factor in the decline of passive tactile spatial acuity.

40. Dr Ewa Jarocka established that the of fingerprints are especially sensitive to touch stimuli.